Heart attacks and other ischemic events of the heart are among the leading causes of death and disability in the United States. In general, the susceptibility of a particular patient to heart attack or the like can be assessed by examining the heart for evidence of ischemia (insufficient blood flow to the heart tissue itself resulting in an insufficient oxygen supply) during periods of elevated heart activity. Of course, it is highly desirable that the measuring technique be sufficiently benign to be carried out without undue stress to the heart (the condition of which might not yet be known) and without undue discomfort to the patient. It is also desirable that the measuring technique be useful for patients of varying degrees of health, including patients without detectable ischemia, those with moderate levels of ischemia, and patients with coronary artery disease.
The cardiovascular system responds to changes in physiological stress by adjusting the heart rate, which adjustments can be evaluated by measuring the surface ECG R-R intervals. The time intervals between consecutive R waves indicate the intervals between the consecutive heartbeats (RR intervals). This adjustment normally occurs along with corresponding changes in the duration of the ECG QT intervals, which characterize the duration of electrical excitation of cardiac muscle and represent the action potential duration averaged over a certain volume of cardiac muscle (FIG. 1). Generally speaking, an average action potential duration measured as the QT interval at each ECG lead may be considered as an indicator of cardiac systolic activity varying in time.
Recent advances in computer technology have led to improvements in automatic analyzing of heart rate and QT interval variability. It is well known now that the QT interval's variability (dispersion) observations performed separately or in combination with heart rate (or RR-interval) variability analysis provides an effective tool for the assessment of individual susceptibility to cardiac arrhythmias (B. Surawicz, J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol, 1996, 7, 777–784). Applications of different types of QT and some other interval variability to susceptibility to cardiac arrhythmias are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,020,540 by Chamoun, 1991; Wang U.S. Pat. No. 4,870,974, 1989; Kroll et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,117,834, 1992; Henkin et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,323,783, 1994; Xue et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,792,065, 1998; Lander U.S. Pat. No. 5,827,195, 1998; Lander et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,891,047, 1999; Hojum et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,951,484, 1999).
It was recently found that cardiac electrical instability can be also predicted by linking the QT-dispersion observations with the ECG T-wave alternation analysis (Verrier et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,560,370; 5,842,997; 5,921,940). This approach is somewhat useful in identifying and managing individuals at risk for sudden cardiac death. The authors report that QT interval dispersion is linked with risk for arrhythmias in patients with long QT syndrome. However, QT interval dispersion alone, without simultaneous measurement of T-wave alternation, is said to be a less accurate predictor of cardiac electrical instability (U.S. Pat. No. 5,560,370 at column 6, lines 4–15).
Another application of the QT interval dispersion analysis for prediction of sudden cardiac death is developed by J. Sarma (U.S. Pat. No. 5,419,338). He describes a method of an autonomic nervous system testing that is designed to evaluate the imbalances between both parasympathetic and sympathetic controls on the heart and, thus, to indicate a predisposition for sudden cardiac death.
The same author suggested that an autonomic nervous system testing procedure might be designed on the basis of the QT hysteresis (J. Sarma et al., PACE 10, 485–491 (1988)). Hysteresis between exercise and recovery was observed, and was attributed to sympatho-adrenal activity in the early post-exercise period. Such an activity was revealed in the course of QT interval adaptation to changes in the RR interval during exercise with rapid variation of the load.
The influence of sympatho-adrenal activity and the sharp dependence of this hysteresis on the time course of abrupt QT interval adaptation to rapid changes in the RR interval dynamics radically overshadows the method's susceptibility to the real ischemic-like changes of cardiac muscle electrical parameters and cardiac electrical conduction. Therefore, this type of hysteresis phenomenon would not be useful in assessing the health of the cardiac muscle itself, or in assessing cardiac ischemia.
A similar sympatho-adrenal imbalance type hysteresis phenomenon was observed by A. Krahn et al. (Circulation 96, 1551–1556 (1997)(see Figure 2 therein)). The authors state that this type of QT interval hysteresis may be a marker for long-QT syndrome. However, long-QT syndrome hysteresis is a reflection of a genetic defect of intracardiac ion channels associated with exercise or stress-induced syncope or sudden death. Therefore, similar to the example described above, although due to two different reasons, it also does not involve a measure of cardiac ischemia or cardiac muscle ischemic health.
A conventional non-invasive method of assessing coronary artery diseases associated with cardiac ischemia is based on the observation of morphological changes in a surface electrocardiogram during physiological exercise (stress test). A change of the ECG morphology, such as an inversion of the T-wave, is known to be a qualitative indication of ischemia. The dynamics of the ECG ST-segments are continuously monitored while the shape and slope, as well as ST-segment elevation or depression, measured relative to an average base line, are altering in response to exercise load. A comparison of any of these changes with average values of monitored ST segment data provides an indication of insufficient coronary blood circulation and developing ischemia. Despite a broad clinical acceptance and the availability of computerized Holter monitor-like devices for automatic ST segment data processing, the diagnostic value of this method is limited due to its low sensitivity and low resolution. Since the approach is specifically reliable primarily for ischemic events associated with relatively high coronary artery occlusion, its widespread use often results in false positives, which in turn may lead to unnecessary and more expensive, invasive cardiac catheterization.
Relatively low sensitivity and low resolution, which are fundamental disadvantages of the conventional ST-segment depression method, are inherent in such method's being based on measuring an amplitude of a body surface ECG signal, which signal by itself does not accurately reflect changes in an individual cardiac cell's electrical parameters normally changing during an ischemic cardiac event. A body surface ECG signal is a composite determined by action potentials aroused from discharge of hundred of thousands of individual excitable cardiac cells. When electrical activity of excitable cells slightly and locally alters during the development of exercise-induced local ischemia, its electrical image in the ECG signal on the body surface is significantly overshadowed by the aggregate signal from the rest of the heart. Therefore, regardless of physiological conditions, such as stress or exercise, conventional body surface ECG data processing is characterized by a relatively high threshold (lower sensitivity) of detectable ischemic morphological changes in the ECG signal. An accurate and faultless discrimination of such changes is still a challenging signal processing problem.
Accordingly, there is a need to provide techniques for detecting and measuring cardiac ischemia in a patient that may be non-invasive, not unduly uncomfortable or stressful, and which may be implemented with relatively simple equipment for patients having various health conditions, and can be sensitive to low levels of ischemia.